Howling WolfHowling Wolf: Wolves howl for several reasons. The howling helps pack members keep in touch, allowing them to effectively communicate in thickly forested areas or over great distances. Furthermore, howling helps to summon pack members to a specific location. The howling wolf can also serve as a declaration of territory, as portrayed by a dominant wolf's tendency to respond to a human imitation of a "rival" individual in an area that the wolf considers its own. This behavior is also stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as a fresh kill. As a rule of thumb, large packs will more readily draw attention to themselves than will smaller packs. Adjacent packs may respond to each others' howls, which can mean trouble for the smaller of the two. Thus, wolves tend to howl with great care. Wolves will also howl for communal reasons. Some scientists During such choral sessions, wolves will howl at different tones and varying pitches, which tends to prevent a listener from accurately estimating the number of wolves involved. This concealment of numbers makes a listening rival pack wary of what action to take. For example, confrontation could mean bad news if the rival pack gravely underestimates the howling pack's numbers. Observations of wolf packs suggest that howling occurs most often during the twilight hours, preceding the adults' departure to the hunt and following their return. Studies also show that wolves howl more frequently during the breeding season and subsequent rearing process. The pups themselves begin howling towards the end of July, and can be provoked into howling sessions relatively easily over the following two months. Such indiscriminate howling usually has a communicative intent, and has no adverse consequences so early in a wolf's life. The howling wolf has become less indiscriminate as wolves learn to distinguish howling pack members from rival wolves.
Howling WolfWolves howl for several reasons. Howling helps pack members keep in touch, allowing them to effectively communicate in thickly forested areas or over great distances. Furthermore, howling helps to summon pack members to a specific location.[6] Howling can also serve as a declaration of territory, as portrayed by a dominant wolf's tendency to respond to a human imitation of a "rival" individual in an area that the wolf considers its own. This behavior is also stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as a fresh kill. As a rule of thumb, large packs will more readily draw attention to themselves than will smaller packs. Adjacent packs may respond to each others' howls, which can mean trouble for the smaller of the two. Thus, wolves tend to howl with great care. Wolves will also howl for communal reasons. Some scientists speculate that such group sessions strengthen the wolves' social bonds and camaraderie—similar to community singing among humans. During such choral sessions, wolves will howl at different tones and varying pitches, which tends to prevent a listener from accurately estimating the number of wolves involved. This concealment of numbers makes a listening rival pack wary of what action to take. For example, confrontation could mean bad news if the rival pack gravely underestimates the howling pack's numbers. Observations of wolf packs suggest that howling occurs most often during the twilight hours, preceding the adults' departure to the hunt and following their return. Studies also show that wolves howl more frequently during the breeding season and subsequent rearing process. The pups themselves begin howling towards the end of July, and can be provoked into howling sessions relatively easily over the following two months. Such indiscriminate howling usually has a communicative intent, and has no adverse consequences so early in a wolf's life. Howling becomes less indiscriminate as wolves learn to distinguish howling pack members from rival wolves.
Other vocalizationsGrowling, used in tandem with bared teeth, is the most visual and effective warning wolves use. Wolf growls have a distinct, deep, bass-like quality, and are used much of the time as a threat, though they are not always necessarily used for defense. Wolves will also growl at other wolves while being aggressively dominant. Wolves can also bark, which they do when nervous or to warn other wolves of danger. Wolves bark very discreetly, and will not generally bark loudly or repeatedly as dogs do; rather, they use a low-key, breathy "whuf" sound to get attention immediately Wolves can also whimper, which they usually do only while submitting to other wolves. Wolf pups will whimper when they need a reassurance of security from their parents or other wolves.
Scent markingWolves, like other canines, use scent marking to lay claim to anything from territory to fresh kills. Alpha wolves scent mark the most often, with males doing so more than females. The most widely used scent marker is urine. Male alpha wolves urine-mark objects using a raised-leg stance (all females squat) so as to enforce rank and territory. They will also use such marks to identify food caches and to claim kills on behalf of the whole pack. Defecation markers are used for the same purposes as urine marks, and serve as a more visual warning, as well. These types of scent markings are particularly useful for navigational purposes, keeping the pack from traversing the same terrain too often while also allowing each individual to be aware of the whereabouts of its pack members. Above all, though, scent marking is used to notify other wolves and packs that a given territory is occupied, and that they should therefore tread cautiously. Wolves have scent glands all over their bodies, including at the base of the tail, between toes, and in the eyes, genitalia, and skin. Pheromones secreted by these glands identify each individual wolf. A dominant wolf will "rub" his or her body against subordinate wolves to mark such individuals as being members of a particular pack. Wolves may also "paw" dirt to release pheromones in lieu of urine marking. That wolves rely so heavily on odoriferous signals testifies greatly to their olfactory capabilities. Wolves can pick up any scent, including marks, from great distances, and can distinguish among them just as well or better than humans can distinguish other humans visually.
Social structure and huntingThe packWolves function as social predators and hunt in packs organized according to a strict social hierarchy and led by an alpha male and alpha female. This hierarchy, with the alphas at the top and the omega at the bottom, affects all activity in the pack – from which wolf eats first to which is allowed to breed (generally only the alpha pair). This high level of social organization was originally thought to have more to do with hunting success, and while this still may be true to a certain extent, emerging theories suggest that the pack has less to do with hunting and more to do with reproductive success. While most alpha pairs are monogamous with each other, there are exceptions. An alpha animal may preferentially mate with a lower-ranking animal, especially if the other alpha is closely related (a brother or sister, for example). The death of one alpha does not affect the status of the other alpha, who will quickly take another mate. Usually, only the alpha pair is able to successfully rear a litter of pups (other wolves in a pack may breed, but will usually lack the resources required to raise the pups to maturity). All the wolves in the pack assist in raising wolf pups. Some mature individuals, usually females, may choose to stay in the original pack so as to reinforce it and help rear more pups. Most, males particularly, will disperse, however. The alpha pair has the greatest amount of social freedom among all the pack members, but they are not "leaders" in the human sense of the term. The alphas do not give the other wolves orders; rather, they simply have the most freedom in choosing where to go, what to do, and when to do it. Possessing strong instincts for fellowship, the rest of the pack usually follows. The size of the pack may change over time and is controlled by several factors, including habitat, personalities of individual wolves within a pack, and food supply. Packs can contain between two and 20 wolves, though an average pack consists of six or seven. New packs are formed when a wolf leaves its birth pack and claims a territory. Lone wolves searching for other individuals can travel very long distances seeking out suitable territories. Dispersing individuals must avoid the territories of other wolves because intruders on occupied territories are chased away or killed, a behavior that may explain wolf "predation" of dogs. Most dogs, except perhaps large, specially bred attack dogs, do not stand much of a chance against a pack of wolves protecting its territory from an unwanted intrusion.
HierarchyIn larger packs, there may be two separate hierarchies in addition to an overbearing one: the first consists of the males, led by the alpha male, and the other consists of the females, led by the alpha female. In this situation, the alpha male usually assumes the "top" alpha position, though alpha females have been known to take control over entire packs in some cases. The male and female hierarchies are interdependent, and are maintained constantly by aggressive and elaborate displays of dominance and submission. After the alpha pair, there may also, especially in larger packs, be a beta wolf or wolves – a "second-in-command" to the alphas. Betas typically assume a more prominent role in assisting with the upbringing of the alpha pair's litter, often serving as surrogate mothers or fathers while the alpha pair is away. Beta wolves are the most likely to challenge their superiors for the role of the alpha, though some betas seem content with being second, and will sometimes even let lower ranking wolves leapfrog them for the position of alpha should circumstances necessitate such a happening (death of the alpha, etc.). More ambitious beta wolves, however, will only wait so long before challenging for the top spot; unless, of course, they choose to disperse and create their own pack instead. Loss of rank can happen gradually or suddenly. An older wolf may simply choose to give way when a motivated challenger presents itself, yielding its position without bloodshed. On the other hand, the challenged individual may choose to fight back, with varying degrees of intensity. While the majority of wolf aggression is non-damaging and ritualized, a high-stakes fight can easily result in injury for either or both parties. The loser of such a confrontation is frequently chased away from the pack or, rarely, may be killed as other aggressive wolves contribute to the insurgency. This kind of dominance encounter is more common during the mating season. Rank order within a pack is established and maintained through a series of ritualized fights and posturing best described as ritual bluffing. Wolves prefer psychological warfare to physical confrontations, meaning that high-ranking status is based more on personality or attitude than on size or physical strength. Rank, who holds it, and how it is enforced varies widely between packs and between individual animals. In large packs full of easygoing wolves, or in a group of juvenile wolves, rank order may shift almost constantly, or even be circular (e.g., animal A dominates animal B, who dominates animal C, who dominates animal A). In a more typical pack, however, only one wolf will assume the role of the omega – the lowest-ranking member of a pack.[10] These individuals absorb the greatest amount of aggression from the rest of the pack, and may be subjected to different forms of truculence at any given point – anything from constant dominance from other pack members to inimical, physical harassment. Though this arrangement may seem objectionable after cursory analysis, the nature of pack dynamics demands that one wolf be at the bottom of the ranking order, and such individuals are perhaps better suited for constant displays of active and passive submission than they are for living alone. For wolves, camaraderie – no matter what the form – is preferable to solitude, and, indeed, submissive wolves tend to choose low rank over potential starvation.
Cooperative hunting and dietPacks of wolves cooperatively hunt any large herbivores in their range, whereas lone wolves are limited to consuming smaller animals due to their relative inability to catch anything larger. Pack hunting methods range from surprise attacks to long-lasting chases, though they strongly favor the latter. Through meticulous cooperation, a pack of wolves is able to pursue large prey for several hours before relenting, though the success rate of such chases is rather low. Solitary wolves depend on small animals, capturing them by pouncing and pinning them to the ground with their front paws – a common technique among canids such as foxes and coyotes. Wolves' diets include, but are not limited to, elk, caribou, moose, deer, and other large ungulates. They also prey on rodents and small animals in a limited manner, as a typical wolf requires between 3 and 10 lb (1.3 to 4.5 kg) of meat per day for sustenance; however, this certainly doesn't mean that a wolf will get the chance to eat everyday. In fact, wolves rarely eat on a daily basis, and so they make up for this by eating up to 20 lb (9 kg) of meat when they get the chance. When pursuing large prey, wolves generally attack from all angles, targeting the necks and sides of such animals. Wolf packs test large populations of prey species by inducing a chase, thereby picking and ganging up on an individual that they perceive to be less fit. Less fit animals typically include the elderly, diseased, and young, and though these individuals are among the most likely to fall victim to predation, healthy animals may also succumb through circumstance or by chance. Hence, while wolves are certainly capable of culling the least fit from the communities of animals upon which they prey, the process certainly doesn't target the feeble or the ill-suited to an outright degree. Healthy, fit individuals will stand their ground against wolves, and are simply better able to effectively defend themselves, increasing the possibility of injury for the wolves involved. Realizing this, wolves are not likely to spend much time testing, chasing, or harassing such individuals. Probability dictates that these tactics are much more useful against lame, young, or old prey animals, and so it is these individuals that are most likely to fall to wolf predation. Even so, pack hunting efforts are usually fruitless. In one study, less than 1 out of 10 chases of moose resulted in a successful kill.[12] Therefore, wolves must hunt almost constantly to sustain themselves. Wolves, like many other keystone predators, are sensitive to fluctuations in prey abundance, making them likely to experience minor changes within their own populations as the abundance of their primary prey species gradually rises and drops over long periods of time. This balance between wolves and their prey prevents the mass starvation of all species involved.
Wolves in religion and folkloreIn many ancient myths, the wolf was portrayed as brave, honorable, and intelligent. The best examples of these myths can be seen in those of the Native Americans. The wolf was also the revered totem animal of Ancient Rome (see Romulus and Remus and Lupercalia). The gray wolf is also the focal point of Pan-Turkism and related mythology. In Proto-Indo-European society, the wolf was probably associated with the warrior class, and the term was subject to taboo deformation, the Latin lupus being an example of a mutated form of the original Proto-Indo-European *wlkwos. Many Germanic personal names used to and still include "wolf" as an element (e.g. Wulfstan, Wolfgang, Wolfhard). In more modern western folklore, the wolf is a creature to be feared. The iconic examples of this image are the Big Bad Wolf and the werewolf—a human that transforms into a wolf through magic or a curse, one that is shunned and reviled in regular society. Norse mythology prominently includes three malevolent wolves: the giant Fenrisulfr, eldest child of Loki and the giantess Angrboda, (who was feared and hated by the Æsir); and Fenrisulfr's children Skoll and Hati, who will devour the sun and moon at Ragnarok. Despite their often negative image, wolves have variously been credited in mythology, fiction and reality, with adopting, nursing, and raising human feral children, the most famous examples being Romulus and Remus, and Mowgli of The Jungle Book. In Mongolian mythology, the Mongols believe that they are descended from a male Gray Wolf and a white doe. The Mongols' greatest hero Genghis Khan called his people 'Clan of the Gray Wolf'.
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